Song of Roland

The Song of Roland, or, in French, La Chanson de Roland, is the best known of the Old French epics. It was possibly first composed some time in the 10th or 11th century, though the earliest extant version of the chanson, was found in the 12th century, in a manuscript designated as "Digby 23", now kept at the Bodleian Library in Oxford. There are later versions that can be found in other manuscripts, but none of them are as complete as the Digby version.

The author of the chanson de Roland was possibly Turoldus, whose name was included at the very end of the epic. Whether he was the original composer of the epic, or the compiler of the Digby manuscript, or a fictional author, is uncertain.

The author of the chanson clearly set out to immortalise the hero Roland and the so-called Twelve Peers in similar fashion to how later medieval poets immortalised King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table.

• Treachery

• On the Field of Rencesvals

• Battle of Charlemagne and Baligant

• Trial of Ganelon

• Historical Background

Treachery

Charlemagne (or Charles I) was besieging Cordoba, when King Marsile of Spain called upon a meeting at his palace in Saragossa to discuss what they should do about Charlemagne. Charlemagne's army had conquered much of Marsile's kingdom for the last seven years, and Marsile was at loss about how he could prevent losing his crown and the final stronghold to the Franks.

It was Blancandrin of Castel de Valfunde who counsel Marsile with a plan to betray an offering of peace to Charlemagne. The peace would be to lure Charlemagne out of Spain by offering hostages, treasures, and most importantly a false declaration that Marsile would become Charlemagne's vassal and convert to the Christian faith. Marsile would pretend to follow Charlemagne to Aix (or Aix-la-Chapelle), the capital of the Franks, to swear allegiance to Charlemagne and be baptised. With Charlemagne back at Aix, Marsile could try to reconquer the land and cities that Charlemagne had won. Blancandrin said that it was better for Marsile to break the last two promises and let the hostages die, than for Marsile to lose his entire kingdom. Blancandrin even offered his own son as hostage.

So Marsile sent Blancandrin as his envoy to Charlemagne, along with treasures and the selected high-ranking hostages. Blancandrin brought before the Frankish king, the offer - hostages, treasure, and the promise of Marsile becoming a vassal to Charlemagne.

So that night, Charlemagne summoned his counsellors and noblemen for advice on this matter of Marsile's proposal.

It was Roland who voiced his rejection of the Saracen proposal of peace, and his distrust for Marsile. Since Cordoba had been captured, they only needed to capture Marsile's capital, Saragossa, and Charlemagne would have the entire Spanish peninsula in his hands; so there was no need of accepting any truce with Marsile. The hero also reminded the assembly that Charlemagne had previously sent an embassy, Basan and Basile, to Marsile, but they treacherously beheaded the two counts.

Roland's stepfather Ganelon, on the other hand, rebuked the young hero for being reckless and for warmongering. If Marsile wanted peace and to ask for mercy, then Charlemagne should magnanimously accept, especially if the Saracen king became a Christian and a vassal to Charlemagne.

Duke Naimes, Charlemagne's wisest counsellor, thought that Ganelon's argument was the most sensible and diplomatic solution. He volunteered to go, but Charlemagne refused to be deprived of Naimes' wisdom. Also the person who went to Saragossa might not return alive if the truce didn't go well.

Roland then offered to go, but Oliver and the king refused his nomination as ambassador, since Roland was no diplomat and was clearly hostile to the Saracens. Roland was the most likely to offend the Saracen king. Archbishop Turpin also offered to go Marsile, but he was also rejected.

Roland then suggested that his stepfather should go, since it was Ganelon's idea to accept peace from the enemy. Ganelon was angry at his stepson's nomination because anyone who went would probably not return alive, but he reluctantly accepted the position when Charlemagne thought he was the ideal candidate. Ganelon swore before Charlemagne and the whole assembly that he would bring Roland's downfall.

Ganelon decided to go alone, since the Frankish noblemen agreed on his nomination; his kinsmen would have come with him. When Charlemagne gave his glove to Ganelon as the mark of his appointment, Ganelon rudely let the glove fall on the ground - which all members of the council saw as a bad omen.

So Ganelon set out for Saragossa with Blancandrin. In their journey, Blancandrin learned of Ganelon's hatred for his stepson, and with the Saracen encouragement, Ganelon vowed to make Roland and the other members of the Twelve Peers pay with their lives for his humiliation at Charlemagne's court.

At Saragossa, Marsile greeted Ganelon's warmly. The message of Charlemagne that he delivered would have brought about Ganelon's immediate death, but Blancandrin intervened and asked his king for patience and to listen to Ganelon's suggestion.

Ganelon advised Marsile that the only way to make Charlemagne leave Spain forever would be to bring about Roland's death. Roland was Charlemagne's right hand in warfare; without Roland, the Frankish king would despair and could not hope to conquer Spain. Marsile should pretend to follow Charlemagne to Aix, to accept baptism, and Spain would be divided in half: Roland would rule one half of the kingdom, while Marsile would rule the other. When Charlemagne would leave for France, Ganelon would arrange it so that Roland would accept the post of rearguard with the Twelve Peers and 20,000 men. Marsile should then gather half of his army to destroy Roland and his warriors in an ambush.

With this plan from Ganelon, Marsile and those in his court rejoiced that Charlemagne's ambassador was willing to commit treason out of spite for his stepson; they rewarded Ganelon with rich gifts. Even Bramimonde, Marsile's consort, bestowed a kiss upon Ganelon.

Ganelon returned to Galne, a city which Roland had captured, and gave the news to Charlemagne along with a false letter from the Saracen king that Marsile would follow Charlemagne to Aix, to be baptised and accept fief from Charlemagne. So, the king immediately ordered to break camp, and immediately prepared for withdrawal from Spain, to return home. Charlemagne was unaware that Marsile indeed intended to follow the Frankish army, but with four hundred thousand armed Saracen warriors.

On the night before Charlemagne was due to make a trek across the mountains of the Pyrenees, the king had a couple of unsettling dreams. They were actually visions of treachery from Ganelon and from Marsile.

In one dream, Ganelon seized Charlemagne's lance and violently broke the weapon. In the second vision, Charlemagne was in a chapel at Aix where he was bitten by a wild boar, while a leopard attacked his body. A hunting dog came and bit off the boar's ear, before fighting with the leopard.

In the morning, Charlemagne called for his advisers, wanting to know who should remain behind and guard the passes and narrow defiles while the main body of Charlemagne's army moved ahead into France.

Ganelon immediately suggested that Roland should protect the army's rear, while Ogier the Dane should take the position of the vanguard. The vanguard was normally led by Roland, so he was angry that he would have to command the rearguard forces. Unlike Ganelon, who had dropped Charlemagne's staff that indicated that he was serving as an ambassador on behalf of the king, Roland didn't not drop the king's gauntlet and instead bowed, once he have been given command of the rearguard. Charlemagne immediately recognised his dreams of Ganelon's treachery, but he was powerless to prevent it.

When Charlemagne brought up the issue of Roland taking half of his army to guard the passes and defiles, the hero immediately rejected his uncle's offer. Roland boasted that he needed no other than his eleven companions and his twenty thousand warriors that were already under his command. However there were some notable warriors who would join Roland; among them were Archbishop Turpin, Astor, Duke Gaifier and Count Gautier del Hum.

On the Field of Rencesvals

As Charlemagne moved the main body of his army through the pass of Rencesvals, Roland remained in Spain. Despite, being back at his kingdom, Charlemagne was grieving and told Duke Naimes about his vision that Roland and the Twelve Peers would be destroyed by Ganelon's treachery.

At Saragossa, Marsile gathered four-hundred thousand Saracen warriors to attack Roland's twenty thousand men. His nephew, Aelroth, boastfully wanted to face Roland himself. Eleven others volunteered to fight against the Twelve Peers. Among them were Falsaron, Marsile's brother; a Berber king named Corsalis; Malprimis of Brigant; the emir from Balaguer; the almacor from Moriane; Turgis of Turteluse; Escremiz of Valterne; Estorgan and his companion Estramariz; Margariz of Seville; and Chernubles of Munigre. Each one hollowly boasted that he would be the one to kill Roland. And they all marched towards Rencesvals.

Roland ordered Count Gautier to guard the defiles and passes of Rencesvals with a thousand Frank warriors. But even there, Gautier would face strong opposition from King Almari of Belferne.

When the Franks heard the sounds of the arrival of their enemies, Oliver went to investigate on the hilltop and saw that the Saracens vastly outnumbered them. Oliver returned to Roland with the news that they could not possibly win with only 20,000 knights; his advice was that Roland should sound the horn so that Charlemagne would reinforce them. Roland flatly refused, mainly because he didn't want people to see him as a coward, and because he was overconfident that they could defeat Marsile. Two more times, Oliver returned to the hill and then back to Roland, calling upon his companion to call for aid, but each time Roland rejected Oliver's wise advice. Roland called for the Franks to be armed and ready to fight the Saracen army. Roland knew now the full extent of his stepfather's treachery and that Ganelon had accepted gifts from the Saracen king.

As the two sides charged into one another, Aelroth boasted that they would destroy Charlemagne and his kingdom. But his prowess and glory (or lack of it) was short-lived; Roland, hearing the rash remarks of Marsile's nephew, drove his spear into Aelroth, breaking his back. Olivers killed Falsaron, Marsile's brother, when he was making a similar boast. Corsablix met his end at Archbishop Turpin. Gerin killed Malprimis, while his companion accounted for the emir. Samson ended the almacor's life; Anseis overthrew Turgis; Engeler ended Escremiz of Valterne; Oton defeated Estorgans, Berenger was victorious against Astramariz.

Although Margariz attacked Oliver with his spear, the Frankish paladin was unharmed, and the Saracen didn't stay. Cherubles wasn't so lucky. After 15 blows against various unnamed Saracens, Roland's spear was destroyed, so he drew Durendal from his scabbard and sliced Cherubles from his head down to his groin. This sword even cut all the way to the Saracen's horse's spine. That was how powerful Roland was.

There were too many little deeds done by the Twelve Peers to record here, but the Franks did very well against Marsile's forces, right up til noon. Around this time, Marsile joined in the fray after realising that even outnumbered, the Franks had slaughtered a hundred thousand of his men.

Then the first of Roland's eleven companions began to fall. Climborin was among the Saracen nobles who greeted Ganelon in friendship; he killed Engeler. Oliver avenged Engeler, by not only killing Climborin, but also Duke Alphaien and Escababi. Valdabrun killed Duke Samson, but Roland avenged his companion's life. Anesis fell to an African named Malquiant, son of Malcuid, but Turpin took his revenge upon Malquiant. Grandonie of Cappadocia, son of King Capuel, did a lot of damage to the Twelve Peers, accounting for Gerin, Gerer and Berenger, as well as Guiun from Saint-Antoine and Austorie of Valence. It was Roland who stopped Grandonie, just like he did against Cherubles earlier.

Roland realised that he should have heeded Oliver's warning, because only 60 Frankish warriors were left; so the hero decided that he would blow his horn, the Oliphant. This time, it was Oliver who said it would not be honourable once the tide had shifted. Twice more, Roland said he should sound the horn, but Oliver argued against it. Archbishop Turpin told the two friends to cease arguing with one another. Although Turpin agreed that calling for aid from Charlemagne would be too late in arriving to help them, but at least Charlemagne could avenge their deaths.

So with this advice, Roland blew his Oliphant, which Charlemagne could hear 30 leagues away from the battlefield. The king exclaimed that the rearguard must be in battle, but Ganelon dismissed that there was no battle. But Naimes and other members of Charlemagne heard it too when Roland blew the horn a second time, and still Ganelon persisted that Roland and the rearguard was in no trouble, and they should ride on towards Aix. A third time, the horn was blown, confirming everyone's fears. Charlemagne immediately ordered his army to turn back to Spain, hoping that he could save what was left of the rearguard force.

Charlemagne also ordered the immediate arrest of his treacherous brother-in-law. Ganelon was placed under detention by Charlemagne's master cook, whose charges would beat Roland's stepfather, until the king's return.

Back at Rencesvals, the effort of blowing the Oliphant so hard, caused a rupture in Roland's temple and bleeding at the nose and mouth, which was probably the cause of his death. Roland, Oliver and the archbishop returned to battle.

By this time, Marsile rode into thick of the battle, felling Bevon, Beaune of Dijon, and the peers - Yvoire, Yvon and Gerard of Roussillon. This caused both anguish and anger in Roland. He rode in and attacked Marsile. Roland severed Marsile's hand, as well as chopping off Jurfaleu the Blond's head; Jurfaleu was Marsile's son.

Wounded, Marsile fled from the battlefield, which caused a major number of Saracens to abandon the battle like cowards. This however didn't help the surviving Charlemagne's rearguard, and the 50,000 Saracens still outnumbered Roland's dwindling force; on the Saracen side, Marganice, Marsile's uncle, was still in command of the field, along with Alfrere and Garmalie.

Marganice could still see victory could be won, so when he saw the opportunity, he ran his sword through Oliver at the back. Despite this mortal wound, Oliver killed Marganice with his sword, Halteclere, and still he continued to fight while he could still stand, killing several more Saracens.

Even Roland was awed at his companion's feat, but Oliver was losing his eyesight. When Roland came too close to his companion, Oliver nearly killed him, the Halteclere splitting his helmet, but the blade did not touch Roland's head.

Oliver, finally feeling his death approaching, dismounted his horse and confessed his sins, before his heart failed him.

With Oliver's death, Roland grieved for him, and fainted while still on his horse, Veillantif. When he regained his senses, Gautier had come down from the defiles and heights of Rencesvals, having lost all his men in his command. But Gautier, the archbishop and Roland were the only ones still left alive. Hearing Gautier's tiding made the hero furious, so he killed 20 Saracens in quick succession, while Gautier felled six and the archbishop five. But Gautier fell when he came under a volley of javelins. Turpin also received a mortal wound, pierced by four spears, but still the archbishop fought on. Roland blew his horn again; and this attempt caused the hero to almost faint from the pain.

But Charlemagne could barely hear the sound of the Oliphant, and the Franks blew their own bugles in answer. Fearing to face Charlemagne, the Saracens attacked Roland and Turpin. Roland lost his horse, Veillantif. Although his shield was in tattered and his hauberk was rent in many places, none of the blows could cut or pierce him. This caused the Saracens to panic and flee from the two implacable warriors.

Roland then began searching for all of his Peers, and laid them around the archbishop. The grief caused Roland to faint again. Despite his wounds, Turpin took the hero's Oliphant and went to a nearby stream, to fetch water for Roland, but weakened by his wounds and loss of blood, the Archbishop of Reims died.

Roland regained his senses, only to find the archbishop dead with his entrails spilled on the ground near the water. Roland also felt that he was dying too because blowing the Oliphant had caused internal bleeding inside of his head. He moved towards a tree where he found four blocks of large marble, where he fainted again.

The hero was unaware that one of the Saracens was feigning death. This pagan thought the paladin was dead, and attempted to take Durendal from Roland. At this point, Roland was jolted to his senses, and sensing a cowering thief, swung the Oliphant against the pagan. The horn broke his helmet and the Saracen's skull, before he gouged out both eyes.

Fearing that a Saracen would gain his sword and horn and exhibit them as trophies of the Saracens' victory, Roland tried to break both Durendal and the Oliphant, but even his might could not break them. Ten times he beat his sword against the stone, but it would neither break nor shatter. At this point, the hero praised the sword, and listed some parts that make up his sword hilt. Enclosed in the hilt was St Peter's tooth, St Basil's blood, hair from St Denis and part of the raiment of St Mary, Jesus' mother.

Now that he felt death approaching, he confessed his sins and began praying to God for salvation and to the archangels Michael and Gabriel to guide him. Seeing that all attempts to destroy the Durendal were to no avail, he decided to hide it under his body as he sat against the pine tree, facing the direction of his enemies in Spain. And then he died.

Battle of Charlemagne and Baligant

It was about this point that Charlemagne arrived with his army, on the field littered with the dead. He was too late. He found the bodies of the Twelve Peers. The king and his entire army lamented the loss of the rearguard force, the Twelve Peers, and his beloved nephew; they were the flower of Charlemagne's army, so the loss of them seemed devastating.

Naimes noticed a great deal of dust rising, and rightly assumed that the Saracens were fleeing from Rencesvals. Setting some guards to watch over their bodies, Charlemagne set out in pursuit of the enemies. It seemed that God was extending his hand to help Charlemagne by causing the sun to stop, before it could set, so the Franks could catch the Saracens. The Saracens, seeing the Frankish army coming, panicked and tried to reach Saragossa. Most of these routed enemies were driven into the river Ebro, where they drowned. Some stood their ground before the river, and were annihilated.

Since it was now dark, Charlemagne decided to set up camp at Val Tenebros, letting his men and horses rest. That night, Charlemagne mourned for the loss of so many good men, but eventually he fell asleep. Then he had a vision of Gabriel informing him to not concern himself with those who died, and to take comfort that Roland's soul had been taken to heaven. Charlemagne would need to concentrate on capturing Saragossa and putting his treacherous brother-in-law on trial.

Marsile fled after receiving his wound - a missing hand - and managed to escape the disaster that befell those men that had died at Val Tenebros and the Ebro River. Seven years earlier, when he had first fought against the Franks, he had sent a missive to an old emir named Baligant from Babylon (not to be confused with a city in Mesopotamia; this city was in Egypt, possibly Cairo) to come to his aid. Baligant arrived with a large fleet in Spain, and was approaching Marsile's capital, Saragossa, with a large army.

Baligant sent an envoy and Marsile informed the emir's messengers that he had lost his right hand in battle, along with his son. He had no desire to rule any longer since he was without an heir, so he was surrendering his city and kingdom (Spain) to Baligant by giving the key to the emir's envoy. Upon hearing this news, Baligant set out to face Charlemagne's army.

That morning, Charlemagne returned to Rencesvals, where he mourned for his nephew and the Twelve Peers. He was about to make burial arrangements for those who had died, but Baligant's army arrived.

So both armies got ready for battle, deploying their battalions and assigning captains to these divisions (there is a long description of this in the song, which I will not list). However, Charlemagne did arrange a new division of 15,000 young warriors, commanded by Count Rabel and Count Guineman, to serve as the vanguard, like that led by the Twelve Peers of 20,000 men; they were to spearhead the attack against the Saracens. On the other side, Baligant's son Malpramis led the spearhead division. Charlemagne divided the rest of his force into 10 divisions, while Baligant had 40 divisions.

Charlemagne's horse was called Tencendur and he armed himself with his sword Joiuse, while Baligant's sword was Preciuse and his spear Maltet.

The two opposing vanguards clashed first, before the rest of the two large armies joined in the battle. Malpramis fought well, but ended at the worse end of the fight when the elder warrior Duke Naimes killed him. Naimes would have lost his life when he was struck by King Canabeus, Baligant's brother, but he was rescued by Charlemagne.

Despite the size of Baligant's army, Charlemagne's smaller army proved to be more experienced. But the deciding factor of the battle was the meeting between the two rulers.

Both kings were unhorsed when they smashed their spears against one another. Then they fought each other with their swords. Baligant almost got the better of the fight when his sword stunned Charlemagne, but the angel Gabriel intervened, renewing Charlemagne's strength. He returned the blow with Joiuse and split open Baligant's head.

Seeing their emir dead, the Saracen warriors began to flee, with the Frankish warriors on their heels.

Charlemagne's army chased their enemies all the way to Saragossa. When Marsile heard his wife Bramimonde, he cried out that Baligant's army was fleeing towards their city and he knew that the emir was dead. Marsile also died from sorrow. Bramimonde surrendered the city to Charlemagne when the Franks broke through the gates. Only those who accepted Christianity and were baptised were spared; so over 100,000 Saragossa residents were baptised. Bramimonde was held as a royal captive, and she was to accompany Charlemagne to France in the hope that she would become Christian.

Trial of Ganelon

The next day, Charlemagne left the city of Saragossa, determined to return to France and to Aix to try Ganelon for treason.

Charlemagne's return to Aix was marred by another tragedy. Aude, Oliver's sister, was Roland's bride. When Charlemagne broke the news, but told her that she could marry his son Louis, she rejected the king's offer and collapsed, dead from grief. She was promptly buried.

Charlemagne then had his brother-in-law tried and charged with treason, and the king's court full of noblemen would be the jury. Ganelon's thirty kinsmen came to support him, particularly Pinabel from Castel de Sorence.

Charlemagne put forward that Ganelon had accepted gold, arranging so that Marsile could ambush the force of the Twelve Peers, leading to the death of Roland and his companions. Ganelon argued that he hadn't committed treason because Roland had wronged him, so it was a quarrel just between him and his stepson.

Pinabel challenged anyone to prove Ganelon's treason by means of single combat. No one was willing to face Pinabel in combat, so the nobles tried to reconcile the king with Ganelon and absolve his brother-in-law of treason. Charlemagne angrily called his noblemen "traitors". Only Thierry, brother of Duke Geoffrey of Anjou, supported the king's case, and accepted the challenge of single combat from Pinabel. Thierry accused of Ganelon of treason and of causing the death of Roland, the Twelve Peers, and 20,000 knights under Roland's command at Rencesvals. For this combat to be prepared, Ganelon had to provide hostages as surety. Thirty of Ganelon's kinsmen swore a pledge of loyalty.

The single combat took place outside of Aix, on the green meadow there. Pinabel was a tall and strong knight, and considerably experienced. Thierry, on the other hand, was shorter, and more slender in build. Everyone sorrowfully believed that Thierry would lose.

Both sides tried to get the other side to surrender, because each side admired their opponent's courage, but Pinabel refused reconciliation if Ganelon would have to die as a traitor. So they fought one another.

They broke spears against one another, and were both unhorsed. They leaped to their feet and drew their swords, trading blow after blow.

Again, the angel Gabriel interfered, when Pinabel's sword cut open Thierry's helmet, scoring a cut from forehead to the right cheek. Thierry's return blow was more decisive and precise, splitting Pinabel's head, spilling out his brains. Thierry had overthrown his foe. The noblemen now unanimously voted that Ganelon was guilty of treason. Ganelon's kinsmen were not spared; they all were hanged on the gallows-trees.

Ganelon's fate was worse than his kinsmen. His limbs were pulled from his body; each limb was tied to a horse.

The poem ended shortly after Bramimonde accepted baptism and became a Christian; her name was changed to Juliana.

That night, Charlemagne had another vision as he slept. Gabriel told Charlemagne that he must gather an army to help King Vivien in Imphe, whose city was besieged by the pagans from Brie, but Charlemagne complained that he was old and weary.

Historical Background

Chanson de Roland was based on historical events that occurred at the pass of Roncesvalles, currently in the province of Navarre, northern Spain, on August 15, AD 778. Roncesvalles was spelt Roncevaux in French, but it is called Rencesvals, in Old French.

Charlemagne had two biographers, but only Einhard in Vita Karoli Magni ("Life of Charles the Great", c. 833) had made any report about the ambush and annihilation of Frankish troops. Einhard (c. 770-840) was a contemporary of Charlemagne of the king's son, Louis I (also known as Louis the Pious), and served in his court at Aachen, not only as a biographer but as an important adviser. The other biographer was named Notker.

What is notable is the difference between the biography and the epic (chanson).

According to the legend, Charlemagne stayed in a seven-year campaign in Spain, and he conquered much of the Moorish kingdom of Spain, eventually capturing Saragossa, with the Moorish capital surrendering after Charlemagne defeated the army of Baligant.

Historically, Charlemagne did besiege the Moorish city of Saragossa, but never captured it. He stayed only for one season or summer before retreating back to France through the Pyrenees. In fact, Einhard never mentioned Rencesvals by name; he only referred to the mountain pass in the Pyrenees. Also, Charlemagne had entered Spain on the invitation of the Moorish embassy, requesting aid in ending an uprising. So Charlemagne didn't enter Spain for a conquest.

In the chanson (epic), the Saracens ambushed Roland's division at Rencesvals; but in Einhard's biography, there were no Saracens at all; it was the Gascons and Barques who were responsible for this attack. Einhard stressed that the Basques were lightly armored and on mountainous terrain. Therefore, they had advantage against the heavily armored Franks. The Basques easily dispersed in all directions, making it impossible for the Franks to give chase to their elusive enemies.

Also, there was no mention of the Twelve Peers in Einhard's biography, and except for Roland, none of his companions were named. Roland died with two other commanders: Eggihard, the King's steward, and Anselm, Count Palatine. Roland himself was listed as the Lord of the Breton March. Nor was there any mention in the biography of Ganelon, the stepfather of Roland, who had betrayed them at Rencesvals.

An earlier source, the original Annales regni Francorum, made no mention of any massacre of Charlemagne's rearguard, no mention of the pass in Rencesvals. What it did mention about Spain in 778 was that Pamplona was destroyed and that the Basques and Navarre were taken, before Charlemagne returned to France. Charlemagne also took hostages with him from a number of Saracens, including from Ibn el Arabi and Abou Thaur. Again, there was no mention of the Saracen rulers, Marsile and Baligant, who figured so largely in the chanson.

There is a revised edition of the Annales regni Francorum, written about AD 800. In the revised annal, it did mention the Basques ambushing the rearguard at the top of the pass of the Pyrenees, but made no mention of the Rencesvals by name. It also said that the Basque's guerillas had engaged not only the rearguard, but the entire army, and that most of Charlemagne's commanders were killed in this ambush.